# BBH Chapter 23 — Sentence Syntax

## Files

### Exercises

Exercise | Description
--- | ---
exercises/ch23-clause-analysis/ | 20-item clause analysis drill: Part A (VSO verbal), Part B (fronted elements), Part C (verbless), Part D (waw-disjunctive), Part E (mixed)
exercises/ch23-passage-exercise/ | 15-item passage exercise: Gen 1:1–4, Gen 3:1–5, Deu 6:4–5, Gen 22:1–2, Jdg 16:20 / Gen 4:9 / Exo 20:2 — all five clause types in context

### Flashcards

File | Format | Description
--- | --- | ---
ch23-vocab-deck.md | Markdown | Vocabulary deck — 13 nouns with POS tags and frequency
ch23-vocab-deck.txt | Anki import | Vocabulary deck — tab-separated, ready for Anki File → Import (13 cards)
ch23-vocab-deck-fd.txt | Flashcards Deluxe | Vocabulary deck — tab-separated, ready for Flashcards Deluxe import (13 cards)

### Notebooks

Notebook | What it shows
--- | ---
Verbal Syntax | Clause type profiles: disjunctive clauses, conditional clauses, relative clauses, aspect comparison
Syntactic Roles OT | Syntactic role search: who does what to whom in the OT

Basics of Biblical Hebrew, Pratico & Van Pelt

## 1. Two Clause Types

Biblical Hebrew has two fundamental clause types distinguished by their first constituent:

Clause Type | First Constituent | Default Word Order | Primary Function
--- | --- | --- | ---
Verbal clause | A finite verb (or Wayyiqtol) | Verb – Subject – Object (VSO) | Sequential narrative; action
Verbless clause | A noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle | Subject – Predicate | States, identities, descriptions

> Key rule: If the clause begins with a finite verb — especially a Wayyiqtol — it is a verbal clause and follows VSO order. If no finite verb is present, or if a noun/pronoun/adjective leads, it is a verbless clause.

## 2. Default Word Order: VSO

In narrative prose, the default order for a verbal clause is:

Verb → Subject → Object (VSO)

Element | Example | Notes
--- | --- | ---
Verb | וַיֹּ֤אמֶר | Wayyiqtol; always clause-initial in main narrative
Subject | אֱלֹהִ֙ים֙ | Follows verb
Object | אֶת-הָאוֹר֙ | Follows subject; marked by אֵת for definite direct object

Gen 1:3: וַיֹּ֤אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֙ים֙ יְהִ֣י אוֹר֔
"And God said, 'Let there be light.'" — VSO order: Verb (וַיֹּאמֶר) + Subject (אֱלֹהִים) + Object (יְהִי אוֹר).

## 3. Fronting and Topicalization

When an element other than the verb appears first in the clause, it is fronted — moved to the pre-verbal position for special emphasis, contrast, or topic-marking. This departure from the VSO default is always significant.

### Types of Fronting

Type | Structure | Signal | Function
--- | --- | --- | ---
Subject fronting | Subject + Verb | אַבְרָהָם הָלַ֥ךְ | Contrast: "As for Abraham, he went (not someone else)"
Object fronting | Object + Verb | אֵת הָאָ֖רֶץ אֶתֵּ֥ן לָ/ךָ | Emphasis on the object: "This land I will give to you"
Adverb fronting | Adverb/PP + Verb | הַיּ֖וֹם יָלַ֥דְתִּי | Temporal emphasis: "Today I have begotten you"
Negation fronting | לֹא + Verb | לֹ֥א יֵדַ֖ע | Negation always pre-verbal in BH

### Contrastive Fronting — Gen 4:4–5

> וְהֶ֥בֶל הֵבִ֖יא גַּם-ה֑וּא … וְאֶל-קַ֥יִן וְאֶל-מִנְחָת֖וֹ לֹ֥א שָׁעָֽה

"But Abel also brought … And to Cain and his offering he did not pay attention."
→ הֶ֥בֶל (Subject) fronted = "As for Abel…" — contrast with the previous Cain sentence.
→ וְאֶל-קַ֥יִן (Prepositional phrase) fronted = emphasis on the rejection: "To Cain he did not look."

## 4. Verbless Clauses

A verbless clause expresses a state, identity, quality, or equation — without a finite verb. The copula "to be" (is/are/was/were) is implied, not written.

### Structure

Clause Type | Example | Gloss | Notes
--- | --- | --- | ---
Noun = Noun (identity) | יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ | "The LORD is our God" | Subject + predicate noun
Noun = Adjective (quality) | טוֹב הָ/אוֹר֑ | "The light was good" | Predicate adjective precedes
Noun = Participle (state) | וְהוּא יֹשֵׁ֤ב פֶּ֙תַח | "while he was sitting at the entrance" | Participle as predicate
Pronoun = Noun | אָנֹכִ֖י יְהוָ֣ה | "I am the LORD" | Pronoun subject + noun pred.
Existence (יֵשׁ / אֵין) | אֵ֥ין אֱלֹהִ֖ים | "There is no God" | אֵין = non-existence

### Locating the Subject

In verbless clauses, the definite element is typically the subject and the indefinite element is the predicate. If both are definite, the subject is usually first.

Example | Subject | Predicate | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ יְהוָ֥ה אֶחָֽד | יְהוָ֥ה | אֶחָֽד | "The LORD — our God; the LORD is one"
טוֹב הָ/אוֹר֑ | הָאוֹר | טוֹב | "The light was good" — pred. adj. first
אָנֹכִ֖י יְהוָ֣ה | אָנֹכִ֖י | יְהוָ֣ה | "I am the LORD" — self-identification

> Predicate adjective rule: When an adjective is the predicate of a verbless clause, it typically comes first (before the subject noun): טוֹב הָ/אוֹר֑ = "the light [was] good." This is the inverse of the attributive adjective, which follows its noun.

## 5. The Waw-Disjunctive (Circumstantial Clause)

A clause introduced by וְ + non-verb (noun, pronoun, or participle as first element after waw) is called a disjunctive or circumstantial clause. It pauses the main narrative line and provides background information, simultaneous action, or contrast.

Pattern | Example | Function
--- | --- | ---
וְ + Pronoun + Participle | וְהוּא יֹשֵׁ֤ב פֶּ֙תַח הָ/אֹהֶל֙ | Circumstantial: "while he was sitting"
וְ + Noun + Verb | וְהַנָּחָשׁ֙ הָיָ֣ה עָר֔וּם | Background: "Now the serpent was crafty"
וְ + Negation | וְלֹ֥א יָדַ֖ע | Negative circumstance: "while he did not know"

> Contrast with Wayyiqtol: Wayyiqtol (וַיִּ–) advances the narrative sequence. Waw-disjunctive (וְ + non-verb or Weqatal) steps off the narrative line — it provides background, contrast, or simultaneous circumstance.

Gen 18:1: וְה֗וּא יֹשֵׁ֤ב פֶּֽתַח-הָאֹ֙הֶל֙ כְּחֹ֣ם הַיּ֔וֹם
"…while he (Abraham) was sitting at the entrance of the tent in the heat of the day."
→ וְהוּא + Participle = circumstantial background to the main event (the LORD's appearance).

## 6. Chiasm and Emphasis

Hebrew prose and poetry frequently use chiasm (ABBA or ABCBA structure) to mark the center of a unit or create emphasis. Recognizing word-order variation is the key to identifying chiasm.

Gen 1:27 (poetic):

> וַיִּבְרָ֨א אֱלֹהִ֤ים׀ אֶת-הָ/אָדָ֙ם֙ בְּ/צַלְמ֔וֹ בְּ/צֶ֥לֶם אֱלֹהִ֖ים בָּרָ֣א אֹת֑וֹ זָכָ֥ר וּנְקֵבָ֖ה בָּרָ֥א אֹתָֽם׃

A: "God created man in his image"
B: "in the image of God he created him"
A': "male and female he created them"
→ The inversion of "God created" → "he created" marks the chiastic structure centering on image of God.

## 7. Key Connective Particles

These particles signal the relationship between clauses and often signal a shift from VSO default:

Particle | Function | Example
--- | --- | ---
וַיִּ– (Wayyiqtol) | Sequential narrative (advances the story) | וַיֹּ֤אמֶר … — "And he said…"
וְ + perfect (Weqatal) | Sequential in future/command contexts | וְאָהַבְתָּ֙ — "and you shall love"
כִּי | Causal ("because"), Logical ("that"), Concessive | כִּ֣י טוֹב֔ — "that [it was] good" / "because it was good"
אֲשֶׁר | Relative clause marker | הָ/אָ֖רֶץ אֲשֶׁ֣ר — "the land which/that…"
הִנֵּה | Presentative ("behold/look"); introduces vivid scene | הִנֵּ֥ה אָנֹכִ֖י שֹׁלֵ֣חַ — "behold, I am sending"
לְמַ֣עַן | Purpose ("in order that") | לְמַ֣עַן יִיטַב֙ לָ֔ךְ — "in order that it go well with you"
עַד אֲשֶׁר | Temporal ("until") | עַד אֲשֶׁ֥ר יָקֻ֖ם — "until he arose"

## 8. Summary: How to Analyze a Hebrew Sentence

Step 1 — Identify the clause type:
- Does the clause begin with a finite verb (especially Wayyiqtol)? → Verbal clause, VSO default.
- Does it begin with a noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle? → Verbless clause or fronted element.

Step 2 — Check for fronting:
- Is there a non-verb element before the main verb? → Fronting; ask why it is fronted (contrast? emphasis? topic?).

Step 3 — Identify the main verb:
- What is the conjugation (Qatal, Yiqtol, Wayyiqtol, Weqatal)?
- Wayyiqtol = on the narrative mainline. Qatal in narrative = background or completed action. Yiqtol = modal or future.

Step 4 — Parse the predicate:
- What are the subject, direct object, and modifiers?
- Is there a definite direct object marker (אֵת)?

Step 5 — Handle clauses without finite verbs:
- If there is a participle, is it predicate (verbless clause) or attributive (modifying a noun)?
- Is יֵשׁ / אֵין present? → Existence clause.

## 9. Parsing Quick Reference — Clause Types in Genesis 1

Verse | Clause | Type | Notes
--- | --- | --- | ---
Gen 1:1 | בְּ/רֵאשִׁ֖ית בָּרָ֣א אֱלֹהִ֑ים | Verbal | PP fronted for temporal setting; Qatal
Gen 1:2a | וְהָ/אָ֗רֶץ הָיְתָ֥ה תֹ֙הוּ֙ וָ/בֹ֔הוּ | Verbless / Waw-disj. | וְ + noun = circumstantial; "Now the earth was…"
Gen 1:3 | וַיֹּ֤אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֙ים֙ | Verbal | Wayyiqtol = mainline narrative
Gen 1:4 | כִּי-ט֖וֹב | Verbless | Predicate adj. כִּי clause; "that it was good"
Gen 1:5 | וַיִּקְרָ֨א אֱלֹהִ֤ים׀ לָ/אוֹר֙ יוֹם֔ | Verbal | VSO; Wayyiqtol; object follows subject
Gen 1:27 | בְּ/צֶ֥לֶם אֱלֹהִ֖ים בָּרָ֣א אֹת֑וֹ | Verbal — fronted PP | Prepositional phrase fronted for emphasis